| Chain链 | TPS (sustained)每秒交易 |
Block Time出块 | Finality最终性 | Fee (USD)手续费 | Layer层级 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bitcoin BTC比特币 | 7 | 10 min | ~60 min | $1–30 | L1 |
| Ethereum ETH以太坊 | 15–30 | 12 s | ~13 min | $0.5–10 | L1 |
| Solana SOL索拉纳 | 2,000–5,000 | 400 ms | ~13 s | <$0.01 | L1 |
| Avalanche AVAX雪崩 | ~1,000 | ~2 s | ~1 s | ~$0.05 | L1 |
| Polkadot DOT波卡 | ~1,000 (relay+paras) | 6 s | ~60 s | ~$0.01 | L0/L1 |
| Cosmos Hub ATOMCosmos | ~10,000 (IBC) | ~6 s | instant (BFT) | <$0.01 | L1 + IBC |
| BNB Smart Chain BSC币安智能链 | 100–300 | 3 s | ~75 s | ~$0.10 | L1 |
| Arbitrum ARBArbitrum | ~4,000 (rollup) | 250 ms | 7 days (challenge) | ~$0.10 | L2 (Optimistic) |
| Optimism OPOptimism | ~2,000 | 2 s | 7 days (challenge) | ~$0.05 | L2 (Optimistic) |
| Polygon PoS / zkEVMPolygon | 500–7,000 | 2 s | ~5 min (PoS) | ~$0.01 | Sidechain + L2 |
| Psy Protocol PSYPsy 协议 | target millions (sharded) | sub-second | ~seconds (recursive ZK) | sub-cent (design) | L1 (privacy + ZK) |
Solana wins on raw L1 throughput and Cosmos wins on instant BFT finality. Bitcoin and Ethereum trade speed for the longest-validated security base. Optimistic rollups have the worst actual finality (7-day challenge window) — most users never feel it because exchanges front the liquidity. Psy's sustained-mainnet numbers are still being validated.
Solana 在 L1 原生吞吐上胜出，Cosmos 在即时 BFT 最终性上胜出。比特币与以太坊以速度换取经过最长验证的安全基础。乐观式卷叠的实际最终性最差（7 天挑战期）——多数用户感受不到，因为交易所垫付了流动性。Psy 的持续主网数据仍在验证中。
| Chain链 | Consensus共识 | Validators验证者 | Energy能耗 | Stake to attack攻击门槛 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bitcoin比特币 | PoW | ~17,000 nodes | ~150 TWh/yr | >50% hash power |
| Ethereum以太坊 | PoS (Casper FFG) | ~1,000,000 validators | ~0.01 TWh/yr | ~$80B+ ETH |
| SolanaSolana | PoH + PoS | ~1,500 validators | ~0.005 TWh/yr | ~$25B SOL |
| Avalanche雪崩 | Snow / Avalanche | ~1,200 validators | low | ~$8B AVAX |
| Polkadot波卡 | NPoS + GRANDPA | 297 active validators | low | ~$5B DOT |
| CosmosCosmos | Tendermint BFT | 180 validators (Hub) | low | ~$2B ATOM |
| BSCBSC | PoSA | 21 validators | low | ~$10B BNB |
| ArbitrumArbitrum | Inherits ETH | 1 sequencer (centralized) | low | (via Ethereum) |
| OptimismOptimism | Inherits ETH | 1 sequencer (centralized) | low | (via Ethereum) |
| PolygonPolygon | PoS (sidechain) | ~100 validators | low | ~$3B POL |
| Psy ProtocolPsy 协议 | Coordinator + Realm shards + workers (recursive ZK) | (active dev) | low | (active dev) |
The 2024 Solana outage was a software bug in its single client implementation. The same risk applies to most "fast" L1s. Ethereum's diversity (Geth, Nethermind, Besu, Erigon, Reth) is a security feature, not just decentralization theater.
2024 年 Solana 宕机是其唯一客户端实现的软件 bug 所致。多数「快」L1 都面临同样风险。以太坊的客户端多样性（Geth、Nethermind、Besu、Erigon、Reth）是真正的安全特性，并非「去中心化作秀」。
| Chain链 | Active Devs/mo月活开发者 | Smart Contract智能合约 | TVL (B$)锁仓量 | Tooling工具链 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ethereum以太坊 | ~6,500 | EVM (Solidity, Vyper) | ~$70B | Best-in-class (Foundry, Hardhat) |
| SolanaSolana | ~2,200 | Sealevel (Rust, Anchor) | ~$10B | Mature (Anchor framework) |
| Polygon (all)Polygon | ~1,800 | EVM | ~$1.5B | EVM-mature |
| Arbitrum + OptimismArbitrum/Optimism | ~1,500 | EVM | ~$25B (combined) | EVM-mature |
| CosmosCosmos | ~1,100 | CosmWasm (Rust) + custom | ~$1B | Mature (Cosmos SDK) |
| Bitcoin比特币 | ~900 | Script + Taproot + Ordinals | n/a | Limited but stabilizing |
| Avalanche雪崩 | ~600 | EVM (subnets) | ~$1B | EVM-mature |
| Polkadot波卡 | ~500 | Substrate (Rust) | ~$300M | Strong but learning curve |
| BSCBSC | ~400 | EVM | ~$3B | EVM-mature |
| Psy ProtocolPsy 协议 | (early) | Psy-lang + dargo CLI | (active dev) | Custom toolchain (psyup, psy-compiler, LSP) |
┌──────────── PSY PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE ────────────────────┐ ╔══════════════════════════════╗ ║ USER LAYER ║ browser-side proving ║ wallet · web IDE · dApps ║ (WebGPU + WASM) ╚══════════════════════════════╝ │ ▼ user submits proof, not raw tx ╔══════════════════════════════╗ ║ SDK · COMPILER ║ psy-sdk · psy-compiler ║ psy-lang → ZK circuits ║ dargo CLI ╚══════════════════════════════╝ │ ┌───────────────┼───────────────┐ ▼ ▼ ▼ ╔════════════╗ ╔════════════╗ ╔════════════╗ ║ Realm 0 ║ ║ Realm 1 ║ ║ ...127 ║ 128+ shards ║ shard ║ ║ shard ║ ║ shards ║ ╚═════╤══════╝ ╚═════╤══════╝ ╚═════╤══════╝ │ │ │ └────────────────┼────────────────┘ ▼ ╔══════════════════════════════╗ ║ COORDINATOR + WORKERS ║ recursive Plonky2 aggregates ║ GUTA pipeline ║ all shard state into one ║ (Gather-Update-Test-Agg) ║ global proof per epoch ╚══════════════════════════════╝ │ ▼ ╔══════════════════════════════╗ ║ CROSS-CHAIN BRIDGES ║ ZK light clients to ║ Doge · Solana · Eth ║ external L1s ╚══════════════════════════════╝ Privacy: shielded by default · UTXO + Poseidon commitments Scale: sharded execution · 128+ realms run in parallel Trust: recursive ZK proof verifies the entire global state transition └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
| Dimension维度 | Ethereum | Solana | Psy ★ |
|---|---|---|---|
| Privacy隐私 | None (transparent ledger) | None | Native (shielded by default) |
| TPS (sustained)持续 TPS | 15–30 | 2,000–5,000 | target millions (sharded) |
| Finality最终性 | ~13 min | ~13 s | ~seconds |
| Decentralization去中心化 | ~1M validators · 5+ clients | ~1.5K validators · 1 client | (active dev) |
| Cross-chain跨链 | via bridges (custodial risk) | via Wormhole | native ZK light clients |
| Smart contracts智能合约 | EVM (Solidity) | Sealevel (Rust) | Psy-lang (compiles to ZK circuits) |
| Maturity成熟度 | Mainnet 2015 · battle-tested | Mainnet 2020 | Active development |
Psy Protocol is in active development; the numbers above are design targets, not measured mainnet sustained throughput. Ethereum's moat is liquidity + battle-tested security. Solana's is speed + ecosystem. Psy's bet is that "privacy + scale + trustless cross-chain" becomes the requirement once AI agents transact at consumer scale — and that no other chain will be ready when it does.
Psy 协议仍在活跃开发中；以上数字为设计目标，非测得的主网持续吞吐。以太坊的护城河是流动性 + 经久验证的安全。Solana 的是速度 + 生态。Psy 的押注是：当 AI 智能体以消费级规模交易时，「隐私 + 规模 + 去信任跨链」将成为必需——而届时没有其它链准备好。
"Best chain" is a category error. The best chain depends on what you're building. A high-frequency DEX wants Solana; a sovereign treasury wants Bitcoin; an AI-agent payment rail wants something that doesn't exist yet — which is exactly what Psy is trying to be.
「最佳链」是一种类别错误。最佳链取决于你在构建什么。高频 DEX 要 Solana；主权财库要比特币；AI 智能体支付通道要某种尚不存在之物——这正是 Psy 试图成为的。